|
[
|
|
|
|
|
|
[HOME]
This
paper
is a
condensed
version
of the
article
"Scandinavian
Mythology
as
a
System"
which
originally
appeared
in two parts
in
The
Journal
of
Symbolic
Anthropology
1 :43-58
(1973) 2:57-78
(1974).
The purpose of the
present study is
not
to give a new interpretation
of
Scandinavian
myths based on a critical revision
of the sources,
but
to
outline patterns governing
the systematic arrangement of
certain
mythological
concepts as they appear in Younger Edda and Elder
Edda. The system which may be elicited from the Scandinavian
mythology is composed of two spatial subsystems, a horizontal and a
vertical subsystem, and two temporal subsystems, a cosmogonic
and
an eschatological subsystem.
THE SPATlAL SYSTEM
Within the spatial
system, the horizontal anthropocentric system
is built on the opposition between the populated enclosed middle part
of
the earth (Midgard) and whatever is found beyond its limits,
outside
the enclosure,
a
sphere both inimical
and devoid of culture (Utgard).
The Midgard-Utgard
opposition is,
undoubtedly, a realization of the
elementary
semantic opposition of "own" versus "alien."
It
also
implicitly reflects the opposition of order
versus disorder,
center
versus periphery, close versus remote,
town
versus
desert,
home
versus
woods. As in the horizontal model, the sky (Asgard) is not practically
opposed to the earth, and the abode of deities is topologically
inseparable from Midgard. In narratives, Asgard and Midgard usually
appear as alternatives.
On the strength of
the dual opposition center
versus
periphery
and
land
versus
water,
Midgard
is
contrasted
to
the
wide
ocean
surrounding
the
earth.
Midgard
is
the
home
of
Jorrnungand,
the dragon of
Midgard.
The
very
name
of
the
dragon of Midgard
may serve as an
indication
that it was
perhaps
regarded
as a positive
element of the
general
cosmological
system.
However,
Scandinavian mythology,
with
its
attraction
to
eschatology,
sees
Jormungand as yet another chaotic
power
harnessed
by the
deities.
Midgard and Asgard are contrasted to
Hell,
the
realm of death, Midgard and Asgard
being located in the
south
and
Hel
in the
north. On the
basis
of
the oppositions center
The
center
of the
vertical
cosmic
model is
the
world tree Yggdrasil,
the
ash
tree,
which
connects
the
sky
and
earth,
the
earth and the lower
world,
dividing
the
universe on the vertical
axis
into
three parts by the
double
opposition
of top and bottom. The trichotomous
vertical
The concept of the
cosmic tree connecting the various
parts
of
the
universe is specifically related to concepts
of
shamanism.
Odin passes
through a patently shamanic initiation in being first
pierced through
with a spear and then hanged on the tree for nine days.
This
emphasizes the role of the world ash tree as Odin's "horse." Apart
from Odin, there is another figure closely
related to the world tree,
namely, Heimdal, the guard of the deities,
and
perhaps originally
Odin's anthropomorphous incarnation
(or even a zoomorphous
one?).
Indeed, Heimdal possesses a horn which he blows and from which he
drinks
mead, though the epithet "steep-horned" indicates
perhaps
his
apostasis as a deer (the latter being inseparable from the world tree in
Siberian shamanism).
The
cosmic tree is also the tree of life and the
tree of fate.
It
is evergreen; along it drips downward the life-giving
honey or milky dew which feeds the springs
at
the roots
(the
master of
which is Mimir). From these springs the Norns, in turn, spray
the
world tree (opposition of damp versus dry like live versus
dead). The Siberian
parallel throws some light on the way in which the
world tree is organically linked with the idea of genesis
and
birth.
This
refers not only to the birth of shamans but of men in general (hence
the tree-related images of human origin such as
the
"embryo" of
people from the ash tree and the willow in the Scandinavian myth).
The epitome of the relation between the idea of birth and the cosmic
tree is the Norns, who may be compared to the female spirits
of
the
shamanic tree who give souls to new born humans
or
protect deliveries.
Norns have specific functions as midwives or donors
of
personal
fate (opposition of fortune versus misfortune).
In
fact,
the
destiny
of
the world and the gods themselves is tied to the cosmic tree.
The tree top, which
is in heaven, is the gathering place of deities.
In
heaven is located the permanent abode of deities
(Asgard) as
well
as a
special
realm of the dead, ruled by Odin (
Niflheim, the last
refuge of the ordinary dead, is
located deep down
below the earth. The differentiation and opposition of the upper
versus
lower realms of the dead and, accordingly,
of Valkyries
versus
Norns
are
important to the vertical cosmic
model.
Thus,
along
with
the
opposition
of life versus death,
the
vertical cosmic
model produces
the
opposition
of two kinds
of
death
and an opportunity for a kind of
mediation between life and death and, finally, for the regaining
of life through
war
and
death.
In the
myths
about
Odin,
war
is conceived
as
a mediator
between
life and death,
a
mediator
which
works
in
both
directions.
The
giant:"
are
practically
nonexistent
in
the
vertical
model,
apart
from
the
casual
mention
that
people,
giants,
and
Hell
are
found
under
the
roots
of
the
ash
tree.
Certain
correspondences
exist
between
the
vertical
model
and the
horizontal
model.
These
correspondences
may
be conceived
as
transformations.
The
main
link
between
both models
is
the equation of
north
and
also
east
with
bottom
(the
location
of the
realm of
the
dead
and,
more
generally,
of
chthonic
demonic
forces).
The
meaning
of the
water
element
(sea)
is
largely
negative
in
the horizontal
model,
and positive
in
the
vertical
model
when it appears
as
springs.
Jorrnungand
shows
some
measure
of
equivalence with Nidhogg gnawing the cosmic
tree
roots.
The
vertical
model
does
not
include
Loki's
shamanic
mediation
between
the
Aces,
giants,
and
dwarfs, and the shamanic
functions
are
performed
only
by
Odin.
The vertical
model
gives
an
extensive
description
of the
celestial
world
of deities
and
the
celestial
"happy"
realm
of
the
dead.
The
opposition
of deities versus giants
and the
struggle
against
the
latter is
actually missing. The contrast
between
the deities
and
the giants may to some
extent
be construed as
corresponding
to the
contrast
of the
realm of the deities to the realm
of
the
dead
and of
the
chthonic
forces.
While in the horizontal
model
the
opposition
culture
versus
nature
is
most
pronounced, it is the
opposition
cosmos
versus
chaos
that
comes
to
the
fore in the vertical
model.
An
example
of a
transformation
from the horizontal to the vertical
model
may be found in
the story of the
acquisition
by Odin of the
sacred
mead which
bestows
poetic
inspiration and wisdom.
The
Younger
Edda
narrates
how
Odin stole
the mead of poetry from the cliff
where
it was
guarded
by Gunnlod,
the
giant
Suttung's
daughter.
Odin
spent
three
nights
with
her,
for which
he was allowed to drink
the
mead
which
he
then
"spat
out"
as
soon
as
he
was back in Asgard.
The
entire
story
unfolds,
as
it were,
in the horizontal projection
against
the
background
of the
Aces'
perpetual
struggle
with
giants
who
live
on
the
ends
of
the
earth
among
cliffs
and
rocks.
There
is
only
one
implicit
turn
of
the
plot
related
to the
vertical
pattern
of the
world:
Odin
finds
his
way
to
the
cliff
as a
dragon,
but
comes back
to
Asgard
as
an
eagle.
Bearing
in
mind
that
the
eagle
and
the
dragon
represent
the
upper and
the
lower
levels
of
the
world
tree,
its
top
and
its
roots,
the
celestial
abode
of the
deities
and
the
chthonic
sphere, we
can
identify
this
episode,
i.e.
the
transformation
from dragon
to
eagle,
with
the
vertical
(downward
and
upward)
travel
along the tree.
In the
mythology
of many
nations,
the
cliff
(mountain)
is
analogous
with
the
world
tree;
accordingly,
Gunnlod,
the
mistress
of
the
cliff
THE TEMPORAL SYSTEM
In the course of
time, the cosmic model bifurcates
into
the
cosmogonic
and eschatological subsystems.
A certain
asymmetry
between
them may be ascribed to the fact that the eschatological
aspect
pervades
the whole of Scandinavian mythology.
The cosmogonic
mythology of the
Edda
(which
is
not
all
a sum
total of independent
etiological myths)
depicts
a process
whereby
the
world has
emerged
from the void (presumably
the primordial
abyss
Ginnungagap),
cosmos created from chaos. The motif of the origin of
the earliest
anthropomorphous beings
is
broken
down into the stories
of
the first giant Ymir who sprang
from ice,
the
procreator
of deities
Bur
(literally
a "parent")
from a stone
which
the cow Audhumla
used
to lick,
and
the
earliest human beings
from
chunks
of
wood revived
by
the
Aces
(Odin, Lodur,
and
Honir).
Thus
the
motif
of
the
origin
of
anthropomorphous beings assumes
a
systematic
arrangement, inasmuch
as
the
giants,
deities,
and
humans
have
their
counterparts
in a
series
of
solid
natural substances
(ice,
stone,
wood).
In
addition
there
is
an
indication
of
the progressively
growing
role
of
the
demiurges,
a
trend
from spontaneity
to
organization.
The
sacrifice
of
Yrnir
by
Bur's
sons
and
the subsequent
creation
of the
world from
his
body
parts
(earth
from
his
flesh,
sea
from
his
blood,
sky
from
his
skull,
and
mountains
from
his
bones)
IS
the
supreme
act
of creation, the elevation
of chaos
into
cosmos.
Among
the
cosmogonic
myths
there
are
several
which
are related to
eschatology,
namely
the
stery
of
the harnessing
of the mythic
monsters
borne
by the giantess
Angrboda
to
Loki.
These are the world dragon
Jorrnungand,
the
mistress
of
death Hel, and the wolf Fenrir.
The
Eddic myth
of
the
golden
age
(when
the
Aces
made
everything
of
gold,
played
dice,
and
rejoiced)
perpetuates
the
moment
before the advent, in the
newly
created
cosmos,
of
that
"inner curse"
which was
to ruin
it
later.
The
etiological
myth
about the
first
war (between the
Aces
and
the
Vans)
already
heralds
the
forthcoming
death,
because
of
the
breach
of
treaties
and
vows.
The
role
of
death is
even
more significant
because
the
Vans
are
in
a
way
related to
the
ritual
of
fertility,
prosperity,
and
wealth.
The
myth
about
the
creation
of
humans
states
that
they were
created
without
breath
or
fate.
The
Aces
revived
them
whereas
fate
seemed
to
have
been
granted
to
them
by the
Noms,
who appear only at
the
end
of the Golden
Age.
Fate,
the
important element
in
Scandinavian
mythology,
is
a
necessary
component of the organized
world order,
but
it also
spells
out
the possibility
of peril not only for
individual
humans,
but
for
the
gods
and
the world as
a
whole.
Finally,
the
myth
about Baldr,
central to the ancient Scandinavian mythology,
is
in
essence
an
etiological
myth
about the origin of death. It is
also
a prologue
to
the tragedy of the end of the world,
a
proper introduction
to
the Scandinavian
eschatology.
While the
sacrifice
of
Yrmr
amounted
to the transformation
of
chaos
into
cosmos,
the
sacrifice
of Baldr
prepared
the
ground for the
reversal
of cosmos
into
chaos.
In
part,
eschatologic
myths
represent
a
mirror
image of cosmogonic
myths
(this
mirror-like
relationship
is
a
significant
feature
of
the two
subsystems).
The
story
of the harnessing
of
chthonic monsters
has its
opposite
in
the
story
about their
releases
and battles
with
the deities.
Come
what
may,
Thor
still
remains
the
chief
adversary
of the world
dragon;
Heimdal
fights
with
Loki
(as
they
once
did
in the guise
of
seals
when
contesting
Freya's
jewel);
and
Tyr
challenges
the
chthonic
hound
Garrn,
whose
twin
Fenrir
he
used
to tame in the past
(the Ace
Odin
is
now
fighting
Fenrir).
Land
previously
lifted from the sea
now
sinks
down
again;
stars
put
by
gods
on
the sky plummet downward;
the
sun
which
the
Aces
had
specially
installed
to give
light is
extinguished;
ice
and
fire, the
substances
whose
interaction brought about
the
world,
now
destroy
the
universe.
The
eschatologic
subsystem
is
markedly
closed.
Some
of its
features
are
at
variance
with
the
cosmogonic
mythology
and
the myths
about the wanderings
and
adventures
of
gods.
Thus,
in some
myths
Loki
and Odin join forces
and
nearly duplicate
each
other functionally,
while
in
eschatological
myths
they
are sharply contrasted
to
one
another.
Odin, the father of the gods and of Baldr (who was
the
leader of the Einherjar), is opposed to Loki,
the
father of
the
chthonic
monsters,
the
pilot of the ship of the dead who
planned
Baldr's
murder.
Odin
and Thor often alternate with each
other in the
stories
describing
cosmogonic
acts
(Odin lifts
the
earth and Thor draws
the
dragon of the middle earth) and in the adventures
of
gods.
They
act
together on the eschatologic
plane.
The
Aces
and
the Vans,
deities
of
farming, while opposed
in
cosmology, are fused
into one
in eschatology.
Finally,
the dwarfs, who are partly
contrasted
to gods,
fear
just
as
the
latter do the invasion of chthonic
monsters
on
the
eschatologic
plane.
THE INTERRELATIONSHIP
OF THE
TWO
MODELS
The interrelation of
the spatial and temporal models poses
a problem
in Scandinavian mythology. The image of the earth surrounded by the
sea is derived from the conception of the earth's cosmogonic
emergence from the ocean and its eschatologic submergence into water.
In
the process of cosmogony, the Aces are contrasted to the giants
on
both the temporal and the spatial axis:
the
giants appear before the
Aces, and the Aces kill them in order to create a world from the body
of one of them,
Ymir. On the spatial axis this contrast
is
revealed
by
the
opposition between Asgard and Jotunheim which engage in
continual warfare.
Instead of the key role being played by Odin,
the
creator,
it
is played
by Thor, the warrior. This
extension
of the same
opposition over space
as well as time, the existence of two subsystems,
spatial and temporal, is characteristic
of
poetic thinking.
It
will be
noted, however, that the above-mentioned convergence between
cosmogony and cosmology
belongs only to the horizontal projection.
In plots unfolding in the horizontal projection,
the
progress
of time
is
not
so tangible, because they are built on the cyclic
principle.
They
describe cyclic circulation of goods
among various
classes
of
mythic
beings
(though these themes
are
genetically
myths).
Thus,
the
sacred
mead
passes
from the Aces
to
the dwarfs, from the dwarfs
to
the
giants,
and
back to the Aces
again. The enmity between the
Aces
and
the
giants
provides
a
background for the
adventures
of
Odin,
Thor,
and
Loki,
but
the general cosmic situation
remains unchanged with time.
The vertical spatial
model is more sensitive
to the
irreversible
temporal processes,
for
the cosmic tree is
a
concentration
of the
world's
fate. Generally, the
cosmic tree is the most
significant
element.
In eschatologic
pictures,
though
it is
largely
divorced
from
cosmogony.
The
concept
of the
world
tree
provides
in
effect an alternative
to that of
the
creation
of
the world
from
parts of the
body
of
an
anthropomorphous
being.
Redundancy
is
compensated
for by the fact
that
the
theme
of
the
world
creation
from
Ymir's
body
never extends
beyond
the
cosmogonic
framework:
it is as if the world
has
indeed
been
created from Ymir,
yet
its
structure
is
further determined
not
by
the shape of
a human body but by
that
of
a tree.
THE
SYSTEM
OF THE
MYTHIC
ACTORS
The
deities
as
one
group
of
mythological
beings are opposed
to the
giants
(Jotuns, Turses)
and
the
dwarfs
(Zwergs,
black Elves),
as well
as
to
certain
other
classes
of
female beings
such
as Norns and
Valkyries,
which are inferior
to the
Aces.
The
giants
and
dwarfs
associate with the Aces
rather than with each
other.
One
mportant
distinguishing
feature
is height
(i.e.
giants and
dwarfs
are
taller
or
shorter than the deities or humans).
This
accounts
perhaps
for
a
peculiar
balance
in the narratives
of
the
Aces' adventures:
Aces
always
confront
one giant but
two
dwarfs,
the
giants
are
more
often
challenged
by two or three
Aces
(Thor or
Odin
with
their
associates),
while
Loki
alone confronts
the
dwarfs.
The Vans
(who
seem to be
identified
with
the
white
Elves,
hence
the
common
alliterative
formula
"Aces and
Elves")
confront
the
Aces
as
a limited group of
deities
who
are associated
with
agrarian
cults
through
certain secondary patterns.
The
Vans
possess
magic
and
the
gift of prophecy
as
well.
Though
the arts
of magic
and
prophecy
are
attributes
of
Odin,
love
of peace
an attribute
of
Baldr,
and
agrarian
welfare
an attribute
of Thor,
i.e,
genuine
Aces,
it is
the
Vans
alone
who
show
a combination
of
all three
attributes
together.
Odin
is an
ever-present
party in the
matters
of creation,
sometimes
with Loki as
a
coparticipant.
Odin
alternates
with
Thor in
the
adventures with
the
giants, and Loki can
act
as a companion
toeither.
The
groups of Odin and Thor are opposed
in terms
of
the
number
of
participants
involved.
From the viewpoint
of mythological
type, the
difference
between
Thor
and Odin appears
to be that of culture
hero
(Odin)
and
hero
(Thor) who cleans
the
earth
of chthonic
monsters
(cf.
Prometheus
versus
Hercules). Odin's
shamanic
ecstasy
is contrasted
with
Thor's
combatant
wrath. At the same time,
Thor,
when
armed with a hatchet
or hammer,
is opposed
to Odin with the spear,
a
symbol of military power and
military
magic.
While
Thor is a
prototype of armed freemen,
Odin
is
a
prototype
of a body of professional
warriors.
While
Thor,
like
so many
epical heroes,
defends
"his
own
folk,"
i.e.
humans
and
deities
against "foreigners"
(i.e.
the
giants
and
chthonic
monsters),
Odin
is
the
inciter
of discords
and
wars
between humans
in
his
function of
the
giver
of
military
luck.
As
a
patron of initiations,
Odin
allows
occasional
deaths
among
his
fellow
warriors,
but
these
are but a temporary
death
in the
overall
ritual,
to be
followed by
the
superlife
of
the
Einherjar
in the myth.
In effect,
Odin,
Thor, and Loki are the
only
three
active characters
of
the mythic
epic.
They
are
also
endowed
with
a
certain
epical
personality.
Thor
possesses
the
immense
epic
physical
power
(its
other
manifestations
are
his
wrath, gluttony,
.etc.),
In that
sense
he is
contrasted
to the wit and guile of Odin and Loki.
The
opposition
of
Thor
to Loki is
that
of strong
versus
tricky.
Loki,
as
Thor's
companion
and aide,
possesses
the
cunning
necessary
for
the
success
of
his
undertakings.
Loki
appears as
the
comical
counterpart
of
Odin
in
cosmogonic
myths
but
as
his
evil
antagonist
in eschatological
myths.
Odin's
wit,
a combination of
lofty
wisdom
and
lowly
perfidy,
clairvoyance,
cunning, and omnipotent witchcraft,
is
wider
than
Loki's
guile and artifice.
When Odin and Loki operate
jointly,
Loki
carries out either their'
common objective or one of Odin's
designs
(such
as
the
theft of Freya's necklace,
which caused
her
to
spark
off
animosity between two heroes, or the robbery
of
the dwarf
Andvari's
gold).
Tyr's
military
function
is,
in fact, that of upholding order:
he
is
the
one
who tames Fenrir,
the
foremost chthonic
destructor.
Tyr
is
opposed
to both Odin, the inciter
of feuds (law against luck)
and
Thor,
the
tempestuous
warrior,
who
always
defends "his
folk"
from
the
external
forces of chaos. Odin, Thor,
and
Tyr are continually
in
touch
with
each
other as specifically
celestial deities
(the
celestial
localization
is
perhaps
the
permanent feature of
the
pantheon
as
a whole).
The
relict and etiological
features mark Tyr as
the
primordial
"master"
of
the
sky
(like Dios-Zeus) while Odin emerges only later as
the
principal
celestial
deity
and the principal antagonist
of the tellurian
chthonic
monsters,
primarily Fenrir
the wolf.
The Eddic
narrative plots
constitute
a
semantic system which
developed
in a certain
way
from
the
syncretism
of etiological
myths.
The
system
comprises
a
number of complementary
parts
(such
as
the
mythic
symbolism
of mead as the embodiment
and
source
of wisdom
and
the source of physical renewal,
the
perpetual
renewal
of food
sources).
The theme
of
obtaining
the magic
drink
(food)
is broken
down
into
paradigms
(such
as sacred-profane,
content-container,
i.e.
internal-external,
liquid-solid)
and distributed
among
several characters
(Odin,
Thor,
Loki).
Specific
narrative
cycles
are
associated
with
them
such
as
the
myths
about the culture
hero
and gallant warriors,
and
the
mythological
anecdotes
about
the
trickster's
frolics.
Since each
of
these
cycles
relates
the
same
basic
plot,
by
telling the plot in three
different
ways
it
becomes
possible
to overcome
the
redundancy
of
mythic
information. |
|
| [HOME] | |